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Case study

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A case study is an in-depth, detailed examination of a particular case (or cases) within a real-world context.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> For example, case studies in <a href="Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> may focus on an individual patient or ailment; case studies in <a href="Business" title="Business">business</a> might cover a particular <a href="Firm" class="mw-redirect" title="Firm">firm</a>'s strategy or a broader <a href="Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">market</a>; similarly, case studies in <a href="Politics" title="Politics">politics</a> can range from a narrow happening over time like the operations of a specific <a href="Political_campaign" title="Political campaign">political campaign</a>, to an enormous undertaking like <a href="World_war" title="World war">world war</a>, or more often the <a href="Policy_analysis" title="Policy analysis">policy analysis</a> of real-world problems affecting multiple stakeholders.

Generally, a case study can highlight nearly any individual, group, organization, event, belief system, or action. A case study does not necessarily have to be one observation (<a href="Sample_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample (statistics)">N</a>=1), but may include many observations (one or multiple individuals and entities across multiple time periods, all within the same case study).<a href="#cite_note-:11-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-6">[6]</a> Research projects involving numerous cases are frequently called cross-case research, whereas a study of a single case is called within-case research.<a href="#cite_note-:13-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-7">[7]</a>

Case study research has been extensively practiced in both the <a href="Social_science" title="Social science">social</a> and <a href="Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mills2010-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yin-9">[9]</a>: 5–6 <a href="#cite_note-Rolls2005-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div>

There are multiple definitions of case studies, which may emphasize the number of <a href="Observation" title="Observation">observations</a> (a small N), the method (<a href="Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative</a>), the thickness of the research (a comprehensive examination of a phenomenon and its context), and the naturalism (a "real-life context" is being examined) involved in the research.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> There is general agreement among scholars that a case study does not necessarily have to entail one observation (N=1), but can include many observations within a single case or across numerous cases.<a href="#cite_note-:11-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-6">[6]</a> For example, a case study of the <a href="French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> would at the bare minimum be an observation of two observations: France before and after a revolution.<a href="#cite_note-:16-13">[13]</a> John Gerring writes that the N=1 research design is so rare in practice that it amounts to a "myth".<a href="#cite_note-:16-13">[13]</a>

The term cross-case research is frequently used for studies of multiple cases, whereas within-case research is frequently used for a single case study.<a href="#cite_note-:13-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-7">[7]</a>

John Gerring defines the case study approach as an "intensive study of a single unit or a small number of units (the cases), for the purpose of understanding a larger class of similar units (a population of cases)".<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> According to Gerring, case studies lend themselves to an <a href="Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">idiographic</a> style of analysis, whereas <a href="Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitative</a> work lends itself to a <a href="Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">nomothetic</a> style of analysis.<a href="#cite_note-:20-15">[15]</a> He adds that "the defining feature of qualitative work is its use of noncomparable observations—observations that pertain to different aspects of a causal or descriptive question", whereas quantitative observations are comparable.<a href="#cite_note-:20-15">[15]</a>

According to John Gerring, the key characteristic that distinguishes case studies from all other methods is the "reliance on evidence drawn from a single case and its attempts, at the same time, to illuminate features of a broader set of cases".<a href="#cite_note-:16-13">[13]</a> Scholars use case studies to shed light on a "class" of phenomena.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_design">Research design</h2></div>

As with other social science methods, no single research design dominates case study research. Case studies can use at least four types of designs. First, there may be a "no theory first" type of case <a href="Study_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Study design">study design</a>, which is closely connected to <a href="Kathleen_M._Eisenhardt" title="Kathleen M. Eisenhardt">Kathleen M. Eisenhardt</a>'s methodological work.<a href="#cite_note-Ridder2017-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eisenhardt1991-17">[17]</a> A second type of research design highlights the distinction between single- and multiple-case studies, following <a href="Robert_K._Yin" title="Robert K. Yin">Robert K. Yin</a>'s guidelines and extensive examples.<a href="#cite_note-Ridder2017-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yin-9">[9]</a> A third design deals with a "social construction of reality", represented by the work of <a href="Robert_E._Stake" title="Robert E. Stake">Robert E. Stake</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ridder2017-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stake1995-18">[18]</a> Finally, the design rationale for a case study may be to identify "anomalies". A representative scholar of this design is <a href="Michael_Burawoy" title="Michael Burawoy">Michael Burawoy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ridder2017-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Burawoy2009-19">[19]</a> Each of these four designs may lead to different applications, and understanding their sometimes unique <a href="Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</a> and <a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> assumptions becomes important. However, although the designs can have substantial methodological differences, the designs also can be used in explicitly acknowledged combinations with each other.

While case studies can be intended to provide bounded explanations of single cases or phenomena, they are often intended to raise theoretical insights about the features of a broader population.<a href="#cite_note-:2-20">[20]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case_selection_and_structure">Case selection and structure</h3></div>

Case selection in case study research is generally intended to find cases that are representative samples and which have variations on the dimensions of theoretical interest.<a href="#cite_note-:2-20">[20]</a> Using that is solely representative, such as an average or typical case is often not the richest in information. In clarifying lines of history and causation it is more useful to select subjects that offer an interesting, unusual, or particularly revealing set of circumstances. A case selection that is based on representativeness will seldom be able to produce these kinds of insights.

While a random selection of cases is a valid case selection strategy in <a href="Big_data" title="Big data">large-N</a> research, there is a consensus among scholars that it risks generating serious biases in small-N research.<a href="#cite_note-:6-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-:18-23">[23]</a> Random selection of cases may produce unrepresentative cases, as well as uninformative cases.<a href="#cite_note-:18-23">[23]</a> Cases should generally be chosen that have a high expected information gain.<a href="#cite_note-:7-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-25">[25]</a> For example, <a href="Outlier" title="Outlier">outlier</a> cases (those which are extreme, deviant or atypical) can reveal more information than the potentially representative case.<a href="#cite_note-:9-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Huang2015-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Underwood2016-27">[27]</a> A case may also be chosen because of the inherent interest of the case or the circumstances surrounding it. Alternatively, it may be chosen because of researchers' in-depth local knowledge; where researchers have this local knowledge they are in a position to "soak and poke" as <a href="Richard_Fenno" title="Richard Fenno">Richard Fenno</a> put it,<a href="#cite_note-Fenno2014-28">[28]</a> and thereby to offer reasoned lines of explanation based on this rich knowledge of setting and circumstances.

Beyond decisions about case selection and the subject and object of the study, decisions need to be made about the purpose, approach, and process of the case study. <a href="Gary_Thomas_(academic)" title="Gary Thomas (academic)">Gary Thomas</a> thus proposes a typology for the case study wherein purposes are first identified (evaluative or exploratory), then approaches are delineated (theory-testing, theory-building, or illustrative), then processes are decided upon, with a principal choice being between whether the study is to be single or multiple, and choices also about whether the study is to be retrospective, snapshot or diachronic, and whether it is nested, parallel or sequential.<a href="#cite_note-Thomas-29">[29]</a>

In a 2015 article, John Gerring and Jason Seawright list seven case selection strategies:<a href="#cite_note-:2-20">[20]</a>

<ol><li>Typical cases are cases that exemplify a stable cross-case relationship. These cases are representative of the larger population of cases, and the purpose of the study is to look within the case rather than compare it with other cases.</li>

<li>Diverse cases are cases that have variations on the relevant X and Y variables. Due to the range of variation on the relevant variables, these cases are representative of the full population of cases.</li>

<li>Extreme cases are cases that have an extreme value on the X or Y variable relative to other cases.</li>

<li>Deviant cases are cases that defy existing theories and common sense. They not only have extreme values on X or Y (like extreme cases) but defy existing knowledge about causal relations.</li>

<li>Influential cases are cases that are central to a model or theory (for example, Nazi Germany in theories of fascism and the far-right).</li>

<li>Most similar cases are cases that are similar on all the <a href="Independent_variables" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent variables">independent variables</a>, except the one of interest to the researcher.</li>

<li>Most different cases are cases that are different on all the independent variables, except the one of interest to the researcher.</li></ol>

For theoretical discovery, Jason Seawright recommends using deviant cases or extreme cases that have an extreme value on the X variable.<a href="#cite_note-:9-25">[25]</a>

<a href="Arend_Lijphart" title="Arend Lijphart">Arend Lijphart</a>, and <a href="Harry_H._Eckstein" title="Harry H. Eckstein">Harry Eckstein</a> identified five types of case study research designs (depending on the research objectives), Alexander George and Andrew Bennett added a sixth category:<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>

<ol><li>Atheoretical (or configurative idiographic) case studies aim to describe a case very well, but not to contribute to a theory.</li>

<li>Interpretative (or disciplined configurative) case studies aim to use established theories to explain a specific case.</li>

<li>Hypothesis-generating (or heuristic) case studies aim to inductively identify new variables, hypotheses, causal mechanisms, and causal paths.</li>

<li>Theory testing case studies aim to assess the validity and scope conditions of existing theories.</li>

<li>Plausibility probes, aim to assess the plausibility of new hypotheses and theories.</li>

<li>Building block studies of types or subtypes, aim to identify common patterns across cases.</li></ol>

Aaron Rapport reformulated "least-likely" and "most-likely" case selection strategies into the "countervailing conditions" case selection strategy. The countervailing conditions case selection strategy has three components:<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>

<ol><li>The chosen cases fall within the scope conditions of both the primary theory being tested and the competing alternative hypotheses.</li>

<li>For the theories being tested, the analyst must derive clearly stated expected outcomes.</li>

<li>In determining how difficult a test is, the analyst should identify the strength of countervailing conditions in the chosen cases.</li></ol>

In terms of case selection, <a href="Gary_King_(political_scientist)" title="Gary King (political scientist)">Gary King</a>, <a href="Robert_Keohane" title="Robert Keohane">Robert Keohane</a>, and <a href="Sidney_Verba" title="Sidney Verba">Sidney Verba</a> warn against "selecting on the <a href="Dependent_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Dependent variable">dependent variable</a>". They argue for example that researchers cannot make valid causal inferences about war outbreaks by only looking at instances where war did happen (the researcher should also look at cases where war did not happen).<a href="#cite_note-:3-22">[22]</a> Scholars of qualitative methods have disputed this claim, however. They argue that selecting the dependent variable can be useful depending on the purposes of the research.<a href="#cite_note-:7-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-33">[33]</a> Barbara Geddes shares their concerns with selecting the dependent variable (she argues that it cannot be used for theory testing purposes), but she argues that selecting on the dependent variable can be useful for theory creation and theory modification.<a href="#cite_note-:0-34">[34]</a>

King, Keohane, and Verba argue that there is no methodological problem in selecting the <a href="Explanatory_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Explanatory variable">explanatory variable</a>, however. They do warn about <a href="Multicollinearity" title="Multicollinearity">multicollinearity</a> (choosing two or more explanatory variables that perfectly correlate with each other).<a href="#cite_note-:3-22">[22]</a>

Case studies have commonly been seen as a fruitful way to come up with hypotheses and generate theories.<a href="#cite_note-:6-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:17-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-:20-15">[15]</a> Case studies are useful for understanding outliers or deviant cases.<a href="#cite_note-:21-36">[36]</a> Classic examples of case studies that generated theories includes Darwin's <a href="Theory_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of evolution">theory of evolution</a> (derived from his travels to the Galapagos Islands), and <a href="Douglass_North" title="Douglass North">Douglass North</a>'s theories of economic development (derived from case studies of early developing states, such as England).<a href="#cite_note-:17-35">[35]</a>

Case studies are also useful for formulating <a href="Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a>, which are an important aspect of theory construction.<a href="#cite_note-:02-37">[37]</a> The concepts used in qualitative research will tend to have higher conceptual validity than concepts used in quantitative research (due to <a href="Giovanni_Sartori" title="Giovanni Sartori">conceptual stretching</a>: the unintentional comparison of dissimilar cases).<a href="#cite_note-:7-24">[24]</a> Case studies add descriptive richness,<a href="#cite_note-:5-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-33">[33]</a> and can have greater internal validity than quantitative studies.<a href="#cite_note-:19-39">[39]</a> Case studies are suited to explain outcomes in individual cases, which is something that quantitative methods are less equipped to do.<a href="#cite_note-:8-32">[32]</a> Case studies have been characterized as useful to assess the plausibility of arguments that explain empirical regularities.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> By emphasizing context across cases, case studies can be useful in identifying scope conditions and evaluating to what extent concepts and theories apply across cases.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a>

Through fine-grained knowledge and description, case studies can fully specify the causal mechanisms in a way that may be harder in a large-N study.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-:21-36">[36]</a> In terms of identifying "causal mechanisms", some scholars distinguish between "weak" and "strong chains". Strong chains actively connect elements of the causal chain to produce an outcome whereas weak chains are just intervening variables.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a>

Case studies of cases that defy existing theoretical expectations may contribute knowledge by delineating why the cases violate theoretical predictions and specifying the scope conditions of the theory.<a href="#cite_note-:6-21">[21]</a> Case studies are useful in situations of causal complexity where there may be <a href="Equifinality" title="Equifinality">equifinality</a>, complex <a href="Interaction_(statistics)" title="Interaction (statistics)">interaction effects</a> and <a href="Path_dependence" title="Path dependence">path dependency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:7-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> They may also be more appropriate for empirical verifications of <a href="Strategic_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategic interaction">strategic interactions</a> in rationalist scholarship than quantitative methods.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Case studies can identify necessary and insufficient conditions, as well as complex combinations of necessary and sufficient conditions.<a href="#cite_note-:7-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> They argue that case studies may also be useful in identifying the scope conditions of a theory: whether variables are sufficient or necessary to bring about an outcome.<a href="#cite_note-:7-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-32">[32]</a>

Qualitative research may be necessary to determine whether a treatment is as-if random or not. As a consequence, good quantitative <a href="Observational_techniques" title="Observational techniques">observational research</a> often entails a qualitative component.<a href="#cite_note-:20-15">[15]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limitations">Limitations</h2></div>

<a href="Designing_Social_Inquiry" title="Designing Social Inquiry">Designing Social Inquiry</a> (also called "KKV"), an influential 1994 book written by <a href="Gary_King_(political_scientist)" title="Gary King (political scientist)">Gary King</a>, <a href="Robert_Keohane" title="Robert Keohane">Robert Keohane</a>, and <a href="Sidney_Verba" title="Sidney Verba">Sidney Verba</a>, primarily applies lessons from regression-oriented analysis to qualitative research, arguing that the same logics of causal inference can be used in both types of research.<a href="#cite_note-:3-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-:02-37">[37]</a> The authors' recommendation is to increase the number of observations (a recommendation that <a href="Barbara_Geddes" title="Barbara Geddes">Barbara Geddes</a> also makes in Paradigms and Sand Castles),<a href="#cite_note-:0-34">[34]</a> because few observations make it harder to estimate multiple causal effects, as well as increase the risk that there is <a href="Observational_error" title="Observational error">measurement error</a>, and that an event in a single case was caused by random error or unobservable factors.<a href="#cite_note-:3-22">[22]</a> KKV sees <a href="Process_tracing" title="Process tracing">process-tracing</a> and qualitative research as being "unable to yield strong causal inference" because qualitative scholars would struggle with determining which of many intervening variables truly links the independent variable with a dependent variable. The primary problem is that qualitative research lacks a sufficient number of observations to properly estimate the effects of an independent variable. They write that the number of observations could be increased through various means, but that would simultaneously lead to another problem: that the number of variables would increase and thus reduce <a href="Degrees_of_freedom_(statistics)" title="Degrees of freedom (statistics)">degrees of freedom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:02-37">[37]</a> Christopher H. Achen and Duncan Snidal similarly argue that case studies are not useful for theory construction and theory testing.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a>

The purported "degrees of freedom" problem that KKV identify is widely considered flawed; while quantitative scholars try to aggregate variables to reduce the number of variables and thus increase the degrees of freedom, qualitative scholars intentionally want their variables to have many different attributes and complexity.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-24">[24]</a> For example, James Mahoney writes, "the Bayesian nature of process of tracing explains why it is inappropriate to view qualitative research as suffering from a small-N problem and certain standard causal identification problems."<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> By using <a href="Bayesian_probability" title="Bayesian probability">Bayesian probability</a>, it may be possible to make strong causal inferences from a small sliver of data.<a href="#cite_note-:22-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a>

KKV also identify inductive reasoning in qualitative research as a problem, arguing that scholars should not revise hypotheses during or after data has been collected because it allows for ad hoc theoretical adjustments to fit the collected data.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> However, scholars have pushed back on this claim, noting that inductive reasoning is a legitimate practice (both in qualitative and quantitative research).<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a>

A commonly described limit of case studies is that they do not lend themselves to generalizability.<a href="#cite_note-:3-22">[22]</a> Due to the small number of cases, it may be harder to ensure that the chosen cases are representative of the larger population.<a href="#cite_note-:19-39">[39]</a>

As small-N research should not rely on random sampling, scholars must be careful in avoiding selection bias when picking suitable cases.<a href="#cite_note-:6-21">[21]</a> A common criticism of qualitative scholarship is that cases are chosen because they are consistent with the scholar's preconceived notions, resulting in biased research.<a href="#cite_note-:6-21">[21]</a> Alexander George and Andrew Bennett also note that a common problem in case study research is that of reconciling conflicting interpretations of the same data.<a href="#cite_note-:7-24">[24]</a> Another limit of case study research is that it can be hard to estimate the magnitude of causal effects.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Teaching_case_studies">Teaching case studies</h2></div>

Teachers may prepare a case study that will then be used in classrooms in the form of a "teaching" case study (also see <a href="Case_method" title="Case method">case method</a> and <a href="Casebook_method" title="Casebook method">casebook method</a>). For instance, as early as 1870 at <a href="Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a>, <a href="Christopher_Langdell" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Langdell">Christopher Langdell</a> departed from the traditional lecture-and-notes approach to teaching <a href="Contract_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Contract law">contract law</a> and began using cases pled before courts as the basis for class discussions.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> By 1920, this practice had become the dominant pedagogical approach used by <a href="Law_schools_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Law schools in the United States">law schools in the United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a>

Outside of law, teaching case studies have become popular in many different fields and professions, ranging from business education to science education. The <a href="Harvard_Business_School" title="Harvard Business School">Harvard Business School</a> has been among the most prominent developers and users of teaching case studies.<a href="#cite_note-Garvin-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ellet-61">[61]</a> Teachers develop case studies with particular learning objectives in mind. Additional relevant documentation, such as financial statements, time-lines, short biographies, and multimedia supplements (such as video-recordings of interviews) often accompany the case studies. Similarly, teaching case studies have become increasingly popular in science education, covering different biological and physical sciences. The National Center for Case Studies in Teaching Science has made a growing body of teaching case studies available for classroom use, for university as well as secondary school coursework.<a href="#cite_note-Palmer2015-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-NCCSTS-63">[63]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Analytic_narrative" title="Analytic narrative">Analytic narrative</a></li>

<li><a href="Casebook_method" title="Casebook method">Casebook method</a></li>

<li><a href="Case_method" title="Case method">Case method</a></li>

<li><a href="Case_competition" title="Case competition">Case competition</a></li>

<li><a href="Case_report" title="Case report">Case report</a></li>

<li><a href="Process_tracing" title="Process tracing">Process tracing</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Garvin-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Garvin_60-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGarvin2003" class="citation journal cs1">Garvin, David A. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=15306">"Making the Case: Professional Education for the World of Practice"</a>. Harvard Magazine. 106 (1): 56–107.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Ellet-61"><a href="#cite_ref-Ellet_61-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFEllet2007" class="citation book cs1">Ellet, W. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/casestudyhandboo00elle">The Case Study Handbook: How to Read, Write, and Discuss Persuasively about Cases</a>. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-422-10158-2</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Palmer2015-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Palmer2015_62-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPalmerIordanou2015" class="citation book cs1">Palmer, Grier; Iordanou, Ioanna (2015-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282291120">"Exploring Cases Using Emotion, Open Space and Creativity"</a>. In Courtney, Nigel; Poulsen, Christian; Stylios, Chrysostomos (eds.). Case Based Teaching and Learning for the 21st Century. Faringdon: Libri. pp. 19–38. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781909818569</bdi>. Retrieved 2024-09-27.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-NCCSTS-63"><a href="#cite_ref-NCCSTS_63-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHerreidSchillerWrightHerreid" class="citation web cs1">Herreid, Clyde F.; Schiller, Nancy A.; Wright, Carolyn; Herreid, Ky (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180913002426/http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/about/">"About Us"</a>. National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS). University at Buffalo. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/about/">the original</a> on 2018-09-13. Retrieved 2018-09-12.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBaskarada2014" class="citation journal cs1">Baskarada, Sasa (October 19, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=tqr">"Qualitative Case Study Guidelines"</a>. The Qualitative Report. 19 (40): 1–25. <a href="SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2559424">2559424</a>.</cite></li>

<li>Bartlett, L. and Vavrus, F. (2017). Rethinking Case Study Research. Routledge.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBaxterJack2008" class="citation journal cs1">Baxter, Pamela; Jack, Susan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol13/iss4/2">"Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design and Implementation for Novice Researchers"</a>. The Qualitative Report. 13 (4): 544–59.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEisenhardt1989" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Kathleen_M._Eisenhardt" title="Kathleen M. Eisenhardt">Eisenhardt, Kathleen M.</a> (1989). "Building Theories from Case Study Research". The Academy of Management Review. 14 (4): 532–50. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F258557">10.2307/258557</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/258557">258557</a>.</cite></li>

<li>George, Alexander L. and Bennett, Andrew. (2005) Case studies and theory development in the social sciences. MIT Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-262-57222-2</bdi></li>

<li>Gerring, John. (2008) Case Study Research. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-67656-4</bdi></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKyburz-Graber2004" class="citation journal cs1">Kyburz-Graber, Regula (2004). "Does case-study methodology lack rigour? The need for quality criteria for sound case-study research, as illustrated by a recent case in secondary and higher education". Environmental Education Research. 10 (1): 53–65. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1350462032000173706">10.1080/1350462032000173706</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218499108">218499108</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMillsDureposWiebe2010" class="citation book cs1">Mills, Albert J.; Durepos, Gabrielle; Wiebe, Elden, eds. (2010). Encyclopedia of Case Study Research. SAGE Publications. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4129-5670-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li>Ragin, Charles C. and Becker, Howard S. Eds. (1992) What is a Case? Exploring the Foundations of Social Inquiry. Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-521-42188-8</bdi></li>

<li>Scholz, Roland W. and Tietje, Olaf. (2002) Embedded Case Study Methods. Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Knowledge. Sage. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7619-1946-5</bdi></li>

<li>Straits, Bruce C. and Singleton, Royce A. (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080528061240/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Sociology/TheoryMethods/?view=usa&ci=0195147944">Approaches to Social Research</a>, 4th ed. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-19-514794-4</bdi>.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFThomas2011" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Gary (2011). How to Do Your Case Study: A Guide for Students and Researchers. SAGE Publications.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFYin2017" class="citation book cs1">Yin, Robert K (October 2017). Case study research: design and methods (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, California, US: SAGE Publications. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-5063-3616-9</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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</style><div id="Clinical_research_and_experimental_design505" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Clinical_research" title="Clinical research">Clinical research</a> and <a href="Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">experimental design</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trial</a>

<ul><li><a href="Protocol_(science)" title="Protocol (science)">Trial protocols</a></li>

<li><a href="Adaptive_clinical_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive clinical trial">Adaptive clinical trial</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Academic_clinical_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic clinical trials">Academic clinical trials</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_study_design" title="Clinical study design">Clinical study design</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">Evidence-based medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Real_world_evidence" title="Real world evidence">Real world evidence</a></li>

<li><a href="Patient_and_public_involvement" title="Patient and public involvement">Patient and public involvement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Scientific_control" title="Scientific control">Controlled study</a> (<a href="Hierarchy_of_evidence#USA" title="Hierarchy of evidence">EBM I to II-1</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a>

<ul><li><a href="Experiment" title="Experiment">Scientific experiment</a></li>

<li><a href="Blind_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Blind experiment">Blind experiment</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-label_trial" title="Open-label trial">Open-label trial</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Adaptive_clinical_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive clinical trial">Adaptive clinical trial</a>

<ul><li><a href="Platform_trial" title="Platform trial">Platform trial</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Observational_study" title="Observational study">Observational study</a> (<a href="Hierarchy_of_evidence#USA" title="Hierarchy of evidence">EBM II-2 to II-3</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cross-sectional_study" title="Cross-sectional study">Cross-sectional study</a> vs. <a href="Longitudinal_study" title="Longitudinal study">Longitudinal study</a>, <a href="Ecological_study" title="Ecological study">Ecological study</a></li>

<li><a href="Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">Cohort study</a>

<ul><li><a href="Retrospective_cohort_study" title="Retrospective cohort study">Retrospective</a></li>

<li><a href="Prospective_cohort_study" title="Prospective cohort study">Prospective</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a> (<a href="Nested_case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Nested case–control study">Nested case–control study</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Case_series" title="Case series">Case series</a></li>

<li><a href="Case_report" title="Case report">Case report</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Outcome_measure" title="Outcome measure">Measures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Epidemiological_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological methods">Occurrence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="Incidence_(epidemiology)" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">Incidence</a>, <a href="Cumulative_incidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumulative incidence">Cumulative incidence</a>, <a href="Prevalence" title="Prevalence">Prevalence</a>, <a href="Point_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Point prevalence">Point prevalence</a>, <a href="Period_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Period prevalence">Period prevalence</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Epidemiological_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological methods">Association</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="Risk_difference" title="Risk difference">Risk difference</a>, <a href="Number_needed_to_treat" title="Number needed to treat">Number needed to treat</a>, <a href="Number_needed_to_harm" title="Number needed to harm">Number needed to harm</a>, <a href="Risk_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Risk ratio">Risk ratio</a>, <a href="Relative_risk_reduction" title="Relative risk reduction">Relative risk reduction</a>, <a href="Odds_ratio" title="Odds ratio">Odds ratio</a>, <a href="Hazard_ratio" title="Hazard ratio">Hazard ratio</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Population_impact_measure" title="Population impact measure">Population impact</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="Attributable_fraction_among_the_exposed" title="Attributable fraction among the exposed">Attributable fraction among the exposed</a>, <a href="Attributable_fraction_for_the_population" title="Attributable fraction for the population">Attributable fraction for the population</a>, <a href="Preventable_fraction_among_the_unexposed" title="Preventable fraction among the unexposed">Preventable fraction among the unexposed</a>, <a href="Preventable_fraction_for_the_population" title="Preventable fraction for the population">Preventable fraction for the population</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Epidemiological_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological methods">Other</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="Clinical_endpoint" title="Clinical endpoint">Clinical endpoint</a>, <a href="Virulence" title="Virulence">Virulence</a>, <a href="Infectivity" title="Infectivity">Infectivity</a>, <a href="Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">Mortality rate</a>, <a href="Morbidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Morbidity">Morbidity</a>, <a href="Case_fatality_rate" title="Case fatality rate">Case fatality rate</a>, <a href="Specificity_and_sensitivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specificity and sensitivity">Specificity and sensitivity</a>, <a href="Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing" title="Likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing">Likelihood-ratios</a>, <a href="Pre-_and_post-test_probability" title="Pre- and post-test probability">Pre- and post-test probability</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trial/test types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="In_vitro" title="In vitro">In vitro</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_testing_on_non-human_primates" title="Animal testing on non-human primates">Animal testing on non-human primates</a></li>

<li><a href="First-in-man_study" class="mw-redirect" title="First-in-man study">First-in-man study</a></li>

<li><a href="Multicenter_trial" title="Multicenter trial">Multicenter trial</a></li>

<li><a href="Seeding_trial" title="Seeding trial">Seeding trial</a></li>

<li><a href="Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Analysis_of_clinical_trials" title="Analysis of clinical trials">Analysis of clinical trials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Risk%E2%80%93benefit_ratio" title="Risk–benefit ratio">Risk–benefit ratio</a></li>

<li><a href="Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">Systematic review</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">Replication</a></li>

<li><a href="Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">Meta-analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Intention-to-treat_analysis" title="Intention-to-treat analysis">Intention-to-treat analysis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation of results</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Survivorship_bias" title="Survivorship bias">Survivorship bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">Correlation does not imply causation</a></li>

<li><a href="Null_result" title="Null result">Null result</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_as_a_biological_variable" title="Sex as a biological variable">Sex as a biological variable</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li>Category</li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_clinical_research" title="Glossary of clinical research">Glossary</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_clinical_research_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of clinical research topics">List of topics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Psychology908" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#BFD7FF;"><div id="Psychology908" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DFEBFF;"><div>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Portal%3APsychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Portal</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychologist" title="Psychologist">Psychologist</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li>

<li><a href="Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a>

<ul><li><a href="Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li>

<li><a href="Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li>

<li><a href="Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li>

<li><a href="Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li>

<li><a href="Aviation_psychology" title="Aviation psychology">Aviation</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychobiography" title="Psychobiography">Biography of famous people</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li>

<li><a href="Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology of color">Color</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li>

<li><a href="Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li>

<li><a href="Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational</a></li>

<li><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Fashion_psychology" title="Fashion psychology">Fashion</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychohistory" title="Psychohistory">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Music psychology">Music</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health</a></li>

<li><a href="Pastoral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral psychology">Pastoral</a></li>

<li><a href="Peace_psychology" title="Peace psychology">Peace and war</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political</a></li>

<li><a href="Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive</a></li>

<li><a href="Photo_psychology" title="Photo psychology">Photography</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Religion</a></li>

<li><a href="School_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="School psychology">School</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Space</a></li>

<li><a href="Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport and exercise</a></li>

<li><a href="Suicidology" title="Suicidology">Suicidology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Stock_trader" title="Stock trader">Trading</a></li>

<li><a href="Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Traffic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Methodologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li>

<li><a href="Archival_research" title="Archival research">Archival research</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavior epigenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experiments</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li>

<li><a href="Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interviews</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li>

<li><a href="Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Qualitative_psychological_research" title="Qualitative psychological research">Qualitative research</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantitative_psychological_research" title="Quantitative psychological research">Quantitative research</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-report_inventory" title="Self-report inventory">Self-report inventory</a></li>

<li><a href="Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">Statistical surveys</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">

<ul><li><a href="Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li>

<li><a href="Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li>

<li><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">Maslow's hierarchy of needs</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental state</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></li>

<li><a href="Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li>

<li><a href="William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li>

<li><a href="Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></li>

<li><a href="Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward Thorndike</a></li>

<li><a href="John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">John B. Watson</a></li>

<li><a href="Clark_L._Hull" title="Clark L. Hull">Clark L. Hull</a></li>

<li><a href="Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li>

<li><a href="Gordon_Allport" title="Gordon Allport">Gordon Allport</a></li>

<li><a href="J._P._Guilford" title="J. P. Guilford">J. P. Guilford</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a></li>

<li><a href="Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a></li>

<li><a href="B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Donald O. Hebb</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernest_Hilgard" title="Ernest Hilgard">Ernest Hilgard</a></li>

<li><a href="Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry Harlow</a></li>

<li><a href="Raymond_Cattell" title="Raymond Cattell">Raymond Cattell</a></li>

<li><a href="Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a></li>

<li><a href="Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller">Neal E. Miller</a></li>

<li><a href="Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_T._Campbell" title="Donald T. Campbell">Donald T. Campbell</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li>

<li><a href="Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></li>

<li><a href="David_McClelland" title="David McClelland">David McClelland</a></li>

<li><a href="Leon_Festinger" title="Leon Festinger">Leon Festinger</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George A. Miller</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Lazarus" title="Richard Lazarus">Richard Lazarus</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanley_Schachter" title="Stanley Schachter">Stanley Schachter</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Zajonc" title="Robert Zajonc">Robert Zajonc</a></li>

<li><a href="Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></li>

<li><a href="Roger_Brown_(psychologist)" title="Roger Brown (psychologist)">Roger Brown</a></li>

<li><a href="Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li>

<li><a href="Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Lawrence Kohlberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Ulric_Neisser" title="Ulric Neisser">Ulric Neisser</a></li>

<li><a href="Jerome_Kagan" title="Jerome Kagan">Jerome Kagan</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Mischel" title="Walter Mischel">Walter Mischel</a></li>

<li><a href="Elliot_Aronson" title="Elliot Aronson">Elliot Aronson</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Posner_(psychologist)" title="Michael Posner (psychologist)">Michael Posner</a></li>

<li><a href="Amos_Tversky" title="Amos Tversky">Amos Tversky</a></li>

<li><a href="Bruce_McEwen" title="Bruce McEwen">Bruce McEwen</a></li>

<li><a href="Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_E._Nisbett" title="Richard E. Nisbett">Richard E. Nisbett</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a></li>

<li><a href="Ed_Diener" title="Ed Diener">Ed Diener</a></li>

<li><a href="Shelley_E._Taylor" title="Shelley E. Taylor">Shelley E. Taylor</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Robert_Anderson_(psychologist)" title="John Robert Anderson (psychologist)">John Anderson</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_C._Kessler" title="Ronald C. Kessler">Ronald C. Kessler</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_E._LeDoux" title="Joseph E. LeDoux">Joseph E. LeDoux</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Davidson" title="Richard Davidson">Richard Davidson</a></li>

<li><a href="Susan_Fiske" title="Susan Fiske">Susan Fiske</a></li>

<li><a href="Roy_Baumeister" title="Roy Baumeister">Roy Baumeister</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_counseling" title="Outline of counseling">Counseling topics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_branches_of_psychology" title="List of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DFEBFF;"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psychology" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:psychology">Wiktionary definition</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:en:Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Category:en:Psychology">Wiktionary category</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikisource:Category:Psychology">Wikisource</a></li>

<li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/category:Psychology" class="extiw external" title="commons:category:Psychology">Wikimedia Commons</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikiquote:Psychology">Wikiquote</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikinews:Special:Search/Psychology">Wikinews</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Psychology">Wikibooks</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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